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Formal Models in International Relations
POLI 247B

Winter 2005

Syllabus, with links to readings and summaries.

Branislav L. Slantchev	Winter 2005
Office: SSB 387	Mon 11:00-12:30p; Wed 12:00-1:30p
Hours: by appointment	SSB 353

Description

This course is intended for advanced graduate students who are interested in the formal analysis of international relations. The goal is to familiarize students with the practical aspects of modeling various substantive ideas by exposing the advantages and limitations of mathematical formalization. To accomplish this, students will (i) derive or prove results from the selected readings, (ii) identify the contributions of their authors, and (iii) find ways to improve the research or extend the insights. This course concentrates on the theoretical aspects of formal research and complements POLI 247A: Quantitative Approaches to IR, where students investigate statistical modeling and empirical testing. Students are expected to have taken courses in international relations (e.g. the core seminar), and game theory (e.g. POLI 204C).

Requirements

There are two requirements for this course: weekly presentations of articles (60%) and participation (40%). Each student will be responsible for presenting and critiquing the articles he or she will be assigned during our organizational meeting. The presentation will consist of (i) a summary of the article's main points, (ii) a careful exposition of the proofs and the intuition behind them, (iii) an evaluation of the substantive importance of the contribution, and (iv) a critique of the paper. Overheads are not required. Students should email me their summaries (either in PDF or Microsoft Word formats) at least 48 hours before the meeting so I can post them on the course web site for others to download and read. Everyone will be expected to have read the articles and the summaries before coming to class. Presenters must be prepared to lead discussion, which means that they should identify the broad themes underlying the reading, establish links to other literatures, suggest improvements for flaws in modeling or research design, derive testable hypotheses, and have ideas about their empirical testing. These will form the starting point for class discussion and other students will be expected to contribute actively.

Guidelines

Modern research in international relations tends to be methodologically sophisticated, and even though the formal models are not quite up there with the bleeding edge of the area, they are far from the toy examples of Prisoner's Dilemma and Chicken games that used to dominate the field. This means that you should expect to spend quite a bit of time reading each article, which is why we shall rarely discuss more than a handful each week. There is no set way to approach reading formal papers, but I strongly suggest you utilize the following strategy:

1. Begin by reading the introduction and conclusion (and perhaps the literature review). What is the article about? What is its central point? Write down a list of claims (propositions) that you would like to see and that you would need to see to be persuaded of the validity of the article's argument. (And I mean, write these down!)
2. Read the description of the formal model. Construct a dictionary for the notation: that is, write down a table with the symbols and their meanings. (As you will quickly see, there is no standard notation in game theory and that results in a lot of notational clutter, so keeping it straight is always a challenge.) Identify the players, their strategies, their payoffs, and the sequence of moves. Is this a game of complete, perfect, and symmetric information? If not, what is it? Why has the author chosen to model it that way? How closely does the formalization match the substantive motivation for the model? What are some of the simplifying assumptions that might be distorting? Why? What solution concept will the author use? Is it appropriate? Recall now your answers to the previous step: do you think this model will be able to address the puzzle adequately?
3. Read the analysis. What propositions does the author present? How do they correspond to your wishlist? Are they stronger, deeper, more satisfying? Or trivial and disappointing? How do they correspond to the author's own claims? Does the author "stretch" their interpretation? How general are these results? Can you recall similar claims from different models? Or contradictory claims from similar models? Do you think there is a general underlying dynamic common to this and other models?
4. (Difficult step.) Satisfy yourself that the claims are valid and the proofs work. Due to journal space constraints, many editors have now taken to insisting that authors leave our parts of (or sometimes even entire) proofs. This is most unfortunate and shows deep misunderstanding about what the value is of a formal article. The whole point of using mathematics is to verify the validity of conclusions and internal consistency, but without the proofs, one must essentially rely on the author to have done it correctly (bad idea, we all make mistakes, and not rarely either) or reconstruct the proofs themselves (a very time-consuming and often non-trivial task). If the article includes the proofs, then make sure you understand them fully. What is each step designed to accomplish? What is the intuition behind the sequence of steps taken? Are you satisfied that they produce the desired result? Draw pictures to illustrate claims, or to attempt to disprove them. Solve a simple case by assigning numbers to the parameters. If the article does not include the proofs, try to locate a working paper version online (sometimes these have all the math in them). If that fails, try to think of a strategy for a proof of the claim. Think of counter-examples, can you find one? Draw pictures! Look at similar models and observe how the authors have solved them.
5. Evaluate the generalizability of the results. Which assumptions do you think are crucial for the results? Do you think the results are likely to extend if we relax them? Why or why not? Which part(s) of proofs will no longer hold? What do you think would happen instead? Are the implications serious for our substantive interpretations? What are some of the questions and new puzzles that this article raises (perhaps the author mentions some, but most often these will arise from your own reading). What type of article do you think would best handle these questions? Is it on the syllabus or does it need to be written? How does this model fit in the modeling enterprise?
6. Step back and look at the conclusions: what have we learned that we did not know before? How does this relate to the other readings, both formal and non-formal that you have seen? Does it contradict some "received wisdom," modify and limit general claims, or support and extend others? What is the general abstract idea to take away? Is it applicable in other contexts, not necessarily IR-related? Which ones and how? If it needs slight modifications to be applicable, what would these be?
7. What are some empirical hypotheses that this model suggests? Are they testable or is the model at such a high level of abstraction that it is difficult to see how to apply it? If they are testable, what sort of research design would you adopt? What variables would you need? Do the hypotheses differ from ones used in previous empirical studies? Do they suggest that the previous research design was flawed? In what ways? How would you improve upon it?

One thing I should make abundantly clear is that this course will deal with game-theoretic formal models. There are many other mathematical formalizations (differential equations, agent-based models, general equilibrium models) but they are not as useful for most of the topics we shall be dealing with because they are unable to account for strategic interdependence of decision-making.

Schedule

No.	Topic
1.	Rational Choice, Game Theory, and International Relations
2.	Bargaining and the Inefficient Use of Power
3.	Crisis Bargaining and Escalation
4.	Conventional and Nuclear Deterrence
5.	Arms Races and Power Transition
6.	Alliances, Balance of Power, and Intervention
7.	Diplomacy, Cheap Talk, and Mediation
8.	Domestic Politics: Constraints, Signaling, Guns versus Butter
9.	Civil Wars and Ethnic Conflict
10.	Sanctions, Enforcement, and Cooperation
11.	International Institutions
12.	Trade and Trade Agreements
13.	Exchange Rates, Debt Crises, and Size of Nations

 

Rational Choice, Game Theory, and International Relations
	On the Value of Game Theory in Social Science Roger Myerson. Rationality and Society, Vol. 4, No. 1. (Jan, 1992), pp. 62-73.
	Rigor or Rigor Mortis? Rational Choice and Security Studies Stephen Walt. International Security, Vol. 23, No. 4. (Spring, 1999), pp. 5-48.
	The Modeling Enterprise and Security Studies Robert Powell. International Security, Vol. 24, No. 2. (Fall, 1999), pp. 97-106.
	The Role of Formal Models Robert Powell. In The Shadow of Power, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999, pp. 22-38.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	An Introduction to Applicable Game Theory Robert Gibbons. Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 11, No. 1. (Winter, 1997), pp. 127-149.
	How Not To Criticize Rational Choice Theory: The Pathologies of Commonsense James Johnson. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol. 26, No. 1. (Mar, 1996), pp. 77-91.
	International Relations: A Strategic Choice Approach David Lake; Robert Powell. Strategic Choice and International Relations, Princeton UP, 1999, pp. 3-20.
	Rationality and the Foundations of Positive Political Theory Mathew D. McCubbins; Michael Thies. Working paper, 1996, University of California, San Diego.
	Rationalizing Politics: The Emerging Synthesis of International, American, and Comparative Politics Helen V. Milner. International Organization, Vol. 52, No. 4. (Autumn, 1998), pp. 759-786.
	Comments on the Interpretation of Game Theory Ariel Rubinstein. Econometrica, Vol. 59, No. 4. (Jul, 1991), pp. 909-924.
Bargaining and the Inefficient Use of Power
Lindsay	Bargaining over Objects that Influence Future Bargaining Power James D. Fearon. Working paper, Stanford University, 1996. Figures 1 and 2 missing from this paper.
Willi	War is in the Error Term Erik Gartzke. International Organization, Vol. 53, No. 3. (Jul, 1999), pp. 567-587.
Willi	Testing War in the Error Term Damon Coletta; Erik Gartzke. International Organization, Vol. 57, No. 2. (Apr, 2003), pp. 445-448.
Laura	The Inefficient Use of Power: Costly Conflict with Complete Information Robert Powell. American Political Science Review, Vol. 98, No. 2. (May, 2004), pp. 231-241.
Laura	War as a Commitment Problem Robert Powell. International Organization, forthcoming, 2005.
Hugh	The Power to Hurt: Costly Conflict with Completely Informed States Branislav L. Slantchev. American Political Science Review, Vol. 97, No. 1. (Feb, 2003), pp. 123-133.
Jinhee	The Principle of Convergence in Wartime Negotiations Branislav L. Slantchev. American Political Science Review, Vol. 97, No. 4. (Nov, 2003), pp. 621-632.
Mark	Bargaining in the Shadow of Power Robert Powell. In The Shadow of Power, Princeton University Press, 1999, Chapter 3.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Rationalist Explanations for War James D. Fearon. International Organization, Vol. 49, No. 3. (Summer, 1995), pp. 379-414.
	A Non-Technical Introduction to Bargaining Theory Abhinay Muthoo. World Economics, Vol. 1, No. 2. (Apr, 2000), pp. 145-166.
	The ABC of War: Advantage, Bargaining, and Confrontation Clara Ponsati. Working paper, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 2002.
	Bargaining Theory and International Conflict Robert Powell. Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 5. (Jun, 2002), pp. 1-30.
	Bargaining in the Shadow of Power Robert Powell. Games and Economic Behavior, Vol. 15, No. 2. (Aug, 1996), pp. 255-289.
	Bargaining and Learning While Fighting Robert Powell. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 48, No. 2. (Apr, 2004), pp. 344-361.
	Conflict without Misperceptions or Incomplete Information: How the Future Matters Michelle R. Garfinkel; Stergios Skaperdas. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 44, No. 6. (Dec, 2000), pp. 793-807.
	Fighting Battles, Winning Wars Alastair Smith. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 42, No. 3. (Jun, 1998), pp. 301-320.
	Bargaining and War R. Harrison Wagner. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 44, No. 3. (Jul, 2000), pp. 469-484.
	How War Ends: A Rational Model Approach Donald Wittman. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 23, No. 4. (Dec, 1979), pp. 743-763.
Crisis Bargaining and Escalation
Steve	Equilibrium Behavior in Crisis Bargaining Games Jeffrey S. Banks. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Aug, 1990), pp. 599-614.
Mark	Capabilities, Perception, and Escalation Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, James D. Morrow, and Ethan R. Zorik. American Political Science Reivew, Vol. 91, No. 1. (Mar, 1997), pp. 15-27.
	Military Capabilities and Escalation: A Correction to Bueno de Mesquita, Morrow and Zorick M. Christina Molinari. American Political Science Review, Vol. 94, No. 2. (Jun, 2000), pp. 425-427.
Jessica	Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes James D. Fearon. American Political Science Review, Vol. 88, No. 3. (Sep, 1994), pp. 577-592.
Kyle	Signaling Foreign Policy Interests: Tying Hands versus Sinking Costs James D. Fearon. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 41, No. 1. (Feb, 1997), pp. 68-90.
Lindsay	Capabilities, Uncertainty, and Resolve: A Limited Information Model of Crisis Bargaining James D. Morrow. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 33, No. 4. (Nov, 1989), pp. 941-972.
Kyle	Military Coercion in Interstate Crises Branislav L. Slantchev. Working paper, University of California, San Diego, 2004.
Laura	Game Theory and the Spiral Model Andrew Kydd. World Politics, Vol. 49, No. 3. (Apr, 1997), pp. 371-400.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	A Theory of Escalation and International Conflict Lisa J. Carlson. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 3. (Sep, 1995), pp. 511-534.
	Mutual Optimism and War Mark Fey; Kristopher Ramsay. Working paper, University of Rochester, 2004.
	Rational Appeasement Daniel Treisman. International Organization, Vol. 58, No. 2. (Apr, 2004), pp. 345-373.
	A Theory of Brinkmanship, Conflicts, and Commitments Michael Schwarz; Konstantin Sonin. Working paper, UC, Berkeley, 2004.
Conventional and Nuclear Deterrence
Hugh	Selection Effects and Deterrence James D. Fearon. International Interactions, Vol. 28, No. 1. (2002), pp. 5-29.
	Credibility, Uncertainty, and Deterrence Marc D. Kilgour; Frank C. Zagare. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 35, No. 2. (May, 1991), pp. 305-334.
Willi	Rational Deterrence in an Imperfect World Barry Nalebuff. World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 3. (Apr, 1991), pp. 313-335.
Jinhee	Crisis Bargaining, Escalation, and MAD Robert Powell. American Political Science Review, Vol. 81, No. 3. (Sep, 1987), pp. 717-736.
Steve	Nuclear Deterrence and the Strategy of Limited Retaliation Robert Powell. American Political Science Review, Vol. 83, No. 2. (Jun, 1989), pp. 503-519.
	Nuclear Brinkmanship with Two-Sided Incomplete Information Robert Powell. American Political Science Review, Vol. 82, No. 1. (Mar, 1988), pp. 155-178.
	Nuclear Deterrence Theory, Nuclear Proliferation, and National Missile Defense Robert Powell. International Security, Vol. 27, No. 4. (Mar, 2003), pp. 86-118.
Laura	Asymmetric Deterrence Frank C. Zagare; Marc D. Kilgour. International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 1. (Mar, 1993), pp. 1-27.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Rational Deterrence Theory and Comparative Case Studies Christopher Achen; Duncan Snidal. World Politics, Vol. 41, No. ?. (Jan, 1989), pp. 143-169.
	Nuclear Weapons, Deterrence and Crisis Escalation Daniel Geller. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 34, No. 2. (Jun, 1990), pp. 291-310.
	Deterrence and Foreign Policy Alexander George; Richard Smoke. World Politics, Vol. 41, No. 2. (Jan, 1989), pp. 170-182.
	Deterrence and International Conflict Paul Huth. Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 2. (Jun, 1999), pp. 25-48.
	Rational Deterrence: Theory and Evidence Robert Jervis. World Politics, Vol. 41, No. 2. (Jan, 1989), pp. 183-207.
	Rational Deterrence and Crisis Stability Jean-Pierre P. Langlois. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 35, No. 4. (Nov, 1991), pp. 801-832.
	Modeling Deterrence and International Crises Jean-Pierre P. Langlois. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 33, No. 1. (Mar, 1989), pp. 67-83.
	Minimal Nuclear Deterrence Barry Nalebuff. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 3. (Sep, 1988), pp. 411-425.
	Deterrence and Bargaining R. Harrison Wagner. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 26, No. 2. (Jun, 1982), pp. 329-358.
	The Nuclear Revolution and the Problem of Credibility Robert Powell. Nuclear Deterrence Theory, Cambridge UP, 1990, Chapter 2.
Arms Races and Power Transition
	Conflict, War, and Redistribution Dagobert L. Brito; Michael D. Intriligator. American Political Science Review, Vol. 79, No. 4. (Dec, 1985), pp. 943-957.
	Can Arms Races Lead to the Outbreak of War? Michael D. Intriligator; Dagobert L. Brito. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 28, No. 1. (Mar, 1984), pp. 63-84.
Hugh	Arms Races and Arms Control: Modeling the Hawk Perspective Andrew Kydd. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 44, No. 2. (Apr, 2000), pp. 228-244.
Jessica	A Twist of Truth: A Reexamination of the Effects of Arms Races on the Occurrence of War James D. Morrow. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 33, No. 3. (Sep, 1989), pp. 500-529.
Mark	Uncertainty, Shifting Power, and Appeasement Robert Powell. American Political Science Review, Vol. 90, No. 4. (Dec, 1996), pp. 749-764.
	Arms Races and Negotiations Sandeep Baliga; Tomas Sjöström. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 71, No. 2. (Apr, 2004), pp. 351-370.
	Free Trade and Arms Races Rafael Reuveny; John Maxwell. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 42, No. 6. (Dec, 1998), pp. 771-803.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Messenger or Message?: Military Buildups and the Initiation of Conflict Paul F. Diehl; Jean Kingston. Journal of Politics, Vol. 49, No. 4. (Aug, 1987), pp. 789-799.
	Reconfiguring the Arms Race-War Debate Paul F. Diehl; Mark J. Crescenzo. Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 35, No. 1. (Jan, 1998), pp. 111-118.
	An Introduction to Lewis Fry Richardson and His Mathematical Theory of War and Peace G. D. Hess. Conflict Management and Peace Science, Vol. 14, No. 1. (??, 1995), pp. 77-113.
	Arming as a Strategic Investment in a Cooperative Equilibrium Michelle R. Garfinkel. American Economic Review, Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar, 1990), pp. 50-68.
	Cooperation, Conflict, and Power in the Absence of Property Rights Stergios Skaperdas. American Economic Review, Vol. 82, No. 4. (Sep, 1992), pp. 720-739.
Alliances, Balance of Power, and Intervention
Willi	Stable Alliance Formation in Distributional Conflict Michelle R. Garfinkel. European Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 20, No. 4. (Nov, 2004), pp. 829-852.
	Alliances and Asymmetry: An Alternative to the Capability Aggregation Model of Alliances James D. Morrow. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 35, No. 4. (Nov, 1991), pp. 904-933.
Lindsay	Alliances, Credibility, and Peacetime Costs James D. Morrow. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Jun, 1994), pp. 270-297.
	Stability and the Distribution of Power Robert Powell. World Politics, Vol. 48, No. 2. (Jan, 1996), pp. 239-267.
	Alignment Decisions in the Shadow of Power Robert Powell. In The Shadow of Power, Princeton, 1999, Chapter 5.
	Alliance Formation and War Alastair Smith. International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 39, No. 4. (Dec, 1995), pp. 405-426.
Kyle	To Intervene or Not to Intervene: A Biased Decision Alastair Smith. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 40, No. 1. (Mar, 1996), pp. 16-40.
	Alliance Formation and General Deterrence Gerald L. Sorokin. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Jun, 1994), pp. 298-325.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	The Dynamics of Alliances in Anarchy Songying Fang; Kristopher Ramsay. Working paper, University of Rochester, 2004.
	Instability, Intervention, and Inter-Power Politics Stephen E. Gent. Working paper, University of Rochester, 2004.
	An Economic Theory of Alliances Mancur Olson; Richard Zeckhauser. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 48, No. 3. (Aug, 1966), pp. 266-279.
	Alliances: Why Write Them Down? James D. Morrow. Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 3. (Jun, 2000), pp. 63-83.
	The Theory of Games and the Balance of Power R. Harrison Wagner. World Politics, Vol. 38, No. 4. (Jul, 1986), pp. 546-576.
Diplomacy, Reputation, and Mediation
Kyle	Which Side Are You On? Bias, Credibility and Mediation Andrew Kydd. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 47, No. 4. (Oct, 2003), pp. 597-611.
	Honest Threats: The Interaction of Reputation and Political Institutions in International Crises Alexandra Guisinger; Alastair Smith. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 46, No. 2. (Apr, 2002), pp. 175-200.
Laura	Politics at the Water's Edge: Crisis Bargaining and Electoral Competition Kristopher Ramsay. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 48, No. 4. (Aug, 2004), pp. 459-486.
Mark	The Might of the Pen: A Reputational Theory of Communication in International Disputes Ann E. Sartori. International Organization, Vol. 56, No. 1. (Feb, 2002), pp. 121-149.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Cheap Talk Can Matter in Bargaining Joseph Farrell; Robert Gibbons. Journal of Economic Theory, Vol. 48, No. 1. (Jun, 1989), pp. 221-237.
	Cheap Talk Joseph Farrell; Matthew Rabin. Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 10, No. 3. (Spring, 1996), pp. 103-118.
	Cheap Talk with Two Audiences Joseph Farrell; Matthew Rabin. American Economic Review, Vol. 79, No. 5. (Dec, 1989), pp. 1214-1223.
	Predation, Reputation, and Entry Deterrence Paul Milgrom; John Roberts. Journal of Economic Theory, Vol. 27, No. 2. (Aug, 1982), pp. 280-312.
	Reputation and Imperfect Information David M. Kreps; Robert Wilson. Journal of Economic Theory, Vol. 27, No. 2. (Aug, 1982), pp. 253-279.
Domestic Politics: Constraints, Signaling, Guns versus Butter
Jinhee	An Institutional Explanation of the Democratic Peace Bruce Bueno de Mesquita; James D. Morrow; Randolph M. Siverson; Alastair Smith. American Political Science Review, Vol. 93, No. 4. (Dec, 1999), pp. 791-808.
Laura	Conflict, Agency, and Gambling for Resurrection: The Principal-Agent Problem Goes to War George W. Downs; David M. Rocke American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 38, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 362-380.
	When and How Do Domestic Constraints Matter? Two-Level Games with Uncertainty Keisuke Iida. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 37, No. 3. (Sep, 1993), pp. 403-426.
	Domestic Political Structure and War Behavior: A Game-Theoretic Approach Marc D. Kilgour. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 35, No. 2. (Jun, 1991), pp. 266-284.
Steve	Domestic Politics and International Trade Negotiations Helen V. Milner; Peter Rosendorff. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 41, No. 1. (Feb, 1997), pp. 117-146.
Hugh	Domestic Institutions and International Bargaining: The Role of the Agent Veto in Two-Level Games Jongryn Mo. American Political Science Review, Vol. 89, No. 4. (Dec, 1995), pp. 914-924.
	Arms Versus Allies: Trade-Offs in the Search for Security James D. Morrow. International Organization, Vol. 47, No. 2. (Spring, 1993), pp. 207-233.
	Guns, Butter, and Anarchy Robert Powell. American Political Science Review, Vol. 87, No. 1. (Mar, 1993), pp. 115-132.
Lindsay	Domestic Opposition and Signaling in International Crises Kenneth A. Schultz. American Political Science Review, Vol. 92, No. 4. (Dec, 1998), pp. 829-844.
	International Crises and Domestic Politics Alastair Smith. American Political Science Review, Vol. 92, No. 3. (Sep, 1998), pp. 623-639.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Theories of International Relations James D. Fearon. Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 1. (Jun, 1998), pp. 289-313.
	Pre-negotiation Public Commitment in Domestic and International Bargaining Bahar Leventoğlu; Ahmer Tarar. Working paper, Stony Brook University, 2004.
	Do Domestic Institutions Constrain or Inform?: Contrasting Two Institutional Perspectives on Democracy and War Kenneth A. Schultz. International Organization, Vol. 53, No. 2. (Apr, 1999), pp. 233-266.
	Looking for Audience Costs Kenneth A. Schultz. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 45, No. 1. (Feb, 2001), pp. 32-60.
	The Watchful Eye: Information Transmission and Political Failure Branislav L. Slantchev. Working paper, University of California, San Diego.
	The Logic of Two-Level Games with Endogenous Domestic Coalitions Jongryn Mo. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 38, No. 3. (Sep, 1994), pp. 402-422.
	International Bargaining with Two-Sided Domestic Constraints Ahmer Tarar. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 45, No. 3. (Jun, 2001), pp. 320-340.
	Domestic Politics and International Conflict Michelle R. Garfinkel. American Economic Review, Vol. 84, No. 5. (Dec, 1994), pp. 1294-1309.
Civil Wars, Ethnic Conflict, and Terrorism
	Conciliation, Commitment, and Counterterrorism Ethan Bueno de Mesquita. International Organization, forthcoming, 2005.
	Why Do Some Civil Wars Last so Much Longer than Others? James D. Fearon. Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 41, No. 3. (May, 2002), pp. 275-302.
Lindsay	Vicious Cycles: Endogenous Political Extremism and Political Violence Rui de Figueiredo; Barry R. Weingast. Working paper, University of California, Berkeley, 2001.
Jessica	Sabotaging the Peace: The Politics of Extremist Violence Andrew Kydd; Barbara F. Walter. International Organization, Vol. 56, No. 2. (Apr, 2002), pp. 263-296.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Global Threats and the Domestic Struggle for Power Michelle R. Garfinkel. European Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 20, No. 2. (Jun, 2004), pp. 495-508.
	How Civil Wars End: A Rational Choice Approach David T. Mason; Patrick J. Fett. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 40, No. 4. (Dec, 1996), pp. 546-568.
Sanctions, Enforcement, and Cooperation
Hugh	Ending Economic Sanctions: Audience Costs and Rent–Seeking as Commitment Strategies Han Dorussen; Jongryn Mo. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 45, No. 4. (Aug, 2001), pp. 395-426.
Mark	Bargaining, Enforcement and International Cooperation James D. Fearon. International Organization, Vol. 52, No. 2. (Spring, 1998), pp. 269-305.
	The Theory of International Economic Sanctions: A Public Choice Approach William H. Kaempfer; Anton D. Lowenberg. American Economic Review, Vol. 78, No. 4. (Sep, 1988), pp. 786-793.
	Trust, Reassurance, and Cooperation Andrew Kydd. International Organization, Vol. 54, No. 2. (Apr, 2000), pp. 325-357.
Willi	Trust and Cooperation through Agent Specific Punishments Fiona McGillivray; Alastair Smith. International Organization, Vol. 54, No. 4. (Oct, 2000), pp. 809-824.
	Modeling the Forms of International Cooperation: Distribution vs. Information James D. Morrow. International Organization, Vol. 48, No. 3. (Summer, 1994), pp. 387-423.
	Are Sanctions Effective? A Game-Theoretic Analysis George Tsebelis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 34, No. 1. (Mar, 1990), pp. 3-28.
	Engineering Cooperation: A Game Theoretic Analysis of Phased International Agreements Jean-Pierre P. Langlois; Catherine C. Langlois. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 45, No. 3. (Jul, 2001), pp. 599-619.
	Arms Control and Other Games Involving Imperfect Detection Donald Wittman. American Political Science Review, Vol. 83, No. 3. (Sep, 1989), pp. 923-945.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Loosening the Ties that Bind: A Learning Model of Agreement Flexibility Barbara Koremenos. International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 2. (Jun, 2001), pp. 289-325.
	Coordination, Commitment, and Enforcement: The Case of the Merchant Guild Avner Greif; Paul Milgrom; Barry R. Weingast. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 102, No. 4. (Aug, 1994), pp. 745-776.
	Sanctions Jonathan Eaton; Maxim Engers. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100, No. 5. (Oct, 1992), pp. 899-928.
	Sanctions: Some Simple Analytics Jonathan Eaton; Maxim Engers. American Economic Review, Vol. 89, No. 2. (May, 1999), pp. 409-414.
	Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma Robert Jervis. World Politics, Vol. 30, No. 2. (Jan, 1978), pp. 167-214.
	Credibility, Costs, and Institutions: Cooperation on Economic Sanctions Lisa L. Martin. World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 3. (Apr, 1993), pp. 406-432.
	Fools Suffer Gladly: The Use of Economic Sanctions in International Crises T. Clifton Morgan; Valerie L. Schwebach. International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. ?. (Mar, 1997), pp. 27-50.
	Absolute and Relative Gains in International Relations Theory Robert Powell. American Political Science Review, Vol. 85, No. 4. (Dec, 1991), pp. 1303-1320.
	Relative Gains and the Pattern of International Cooperation Duncan Snidal. American Political Science Review, Vol. 85, No. 3. (Sep, 1991), pp. 701-726.
International Institutions
	Reputation and Hegemonic Stability: A Game-Theoretic Analysis James E. Alt; Randall L. Calvert; Brian D. Humes. American Political Science Review, Vol. 82, No. 2. (Jun, 1988), pp. 445-466.
	Domestic Policies, National Sovereignty and International Economic Institutions Kyle Bagwell; Robert Staiger. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116, No. 2. (May, 2001), pp. 519-562.
Jessica	Managing the Evolution of Multilateralism George W. Downs; David M. Rocke; Peter N. Barsoom. International Organization, Vol. 52, No. 2. (Spring, 1998), pp. 397-419.
Steve	Is There a Broader-Deeper Trade-off in International Multilateral Agreements? Michael J. Gilligan. International Organization, Vol. 58, No. 3. (Jul, 2004), pp. 459-484.
	The Role of Multilateral Institutions in International Trade Cooperation Giovanni Maggi. American Economic Review, Vol. 89, No. 1. (Mar, 1999), pp. 190-214.
	An Economic Theory of GATT Kyle Bagwell; Robert Staiger. American Economic Review, Vol. 89, No. 1. (Mar, 1999), pp. 215-248.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	The Rational Design of International Institutions Barbara Koremenos; Charles Lipson; Duncan Snidal. International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 4. (Oct, 2001), pp. 761-800.
	Bargaining and International Policy Cooperation Kenneth Rogoff. American Economic Review, Vol. 80, No. 2. (May, 1990), pp. 139-142.
	Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutional Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England Douglass C. North; Barry R. Weingast. Journal of Economic History, Vol. 49, No. 4. (Dec, 1989), pp. 803-832.
	The Role of Institutions in the Revival of Trade Paul Milgrom; Douglass North; Barry Weingast. Economics and Politics, Vol. 2, No. 1. (Mar, 1990), pp. 1-23.
Trade and Trade Agreements
	A Coalition Formation Approach to Equilibrium Federations and Trading Blocs John B. Burbidge; James A. DePater; Gordon M. Myers; Abhijit Sengupta. American Economic Review, Vol. 87, No. 5. (Dec, 1997), pp. 940-957.
	Retaliation, Bargaining, and the Pursuit of ‘Free and Fare’ Trade Kishor Gawande; Wendy Hansen. International Organization, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Jan, 1999), pp. 117-159.
	Trade Wars and Trade Talks Gene Grossman; Elhanan Helpman. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 103, No. 4. (Aug, 1995), pp. 675-708.
	The Value of Trade Agreements in the Presence of Political Pressures Giovanni Maggi; Andres Rodriguez-Clare. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 106, No. 3. (Jun, 1998), pp. 574-601.
	Endogenous Tariff Formation Wolfgang Mayer. American Economic Review, Vol. 74, No. 5. (Dec, 1984), pp. 970-985.
	Recommended and Background Readings
Mark	Free to Trade: Democracies, Autocracies, and Intenational Trade Edward D. Mansfield; Helen V. Milner; Peter Rosendorff. American Political Science Review, Vol. 94, No. 2. (Jun, 2000), pp. 305-321.
Mark	Political Regimes and International Trade: The Democratic Difference Revisited Xinyuan Dai. American Political Science Review, Vol. 96, No. 1. (Mar, 2002), pp. 159-165.
Mark	Replication, Realism, and Robustness: Analyzing Political Regimes and International Trade Edward D. Mansfield; Helen V. Milner; Peter Rosendorff. American Political Science Review, Vol. 96, No. 1. (Mar, 2002), pp. 167-169.
	Why Democracies Cooperate More: Electoral Control and International Trade Agreements Edward D. Mansfield; Helen V. Milner; Peter Rosendorff. International Organization, Vol. 56, No. 3. (Aug, 2002), pp. 477-513.
Exchange Rates, Debt Crises, and Size of Nations
	On the Number and Size of Nations Alberto Alesina; Enrico Spolaore. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 112, No. 4. (Nov, 1997), pp. 1027-1056.
	The Breakup of Nations: A Political Economy Analysis Patrick Bolton; Gerard Roland. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 112, No. 4. (Nov, 1997), pp. 1057-1090.
	A Constant Recontracting Model of Sovereign Debt Jeremy Bulow; Kenneth Rogoff. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 97, No. 1. (Feb, 1989), pp. 155-178.
	The Political Choice of the Exchange Rate Regime L. J. Ruland; J. M. Viaene. Economics and Politics, Vol. 5, No. 3. (??, 1993), pp. 271-284.
	Recommended and Background Readings
	Economic Integration and Political Disintegration Alberto Alesina; Enrico Spolaore; Romain Wacziarg. American Economic Review, Vol. 90, No. 5. (Dec, 2000), pp. 1276-1296.
	The Wealth and Size of Nations Donald Wittman. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 44, No. 6. (Dec, 2000), pp. 868-884.